Conflict in the Niger Delta Essay

The conflict happening in the Niger Delta stated in 1990. The tensions involve foreign oil corporation and members of some Niger Delta’s minority ethnic groups, particularly the Ogoni and the Ijaw. The instability continued from the 1990s until recently even though there are major changes in the government structure. The area surrounding the Delta is now heavily militarized by the Nigerian army and police forces, and numerous armed groups belonging to the ethnic groups (Barrett). According to the Center for International Development and Conflict Management (â€Å"Minorities at Risk. A Country Case Study†) violence and high crime rate is a common scenario in the Delta because of the stiff contest for oil. Government atrocities with civilian as victims are also recorded in the area. One of the most conflicted areas in the Delta is Oganiland. Located in the southeast of the Niger Delta, Oganiland is a region comprising 404-squale-mile of the area. Shell and Chevron set up their exploration and drilling facilities in the area upon the discovery of oil deposits in 1957. The rich oil deposit in Oganiland is considered as Nigeria’s first petroleum deposit for commercial purposes. During the exploration of the two largest foreign oil companies, government authorities and agents forced residents of the area to leave. This government-initiated forced evacuation on the area affected almost half a million ethnic minorities belonging to the group Ogonis and other ethnic groups (Agbu). They also attest that the government and the foreign oil companies did not conduct any consultation with them and offer any damages. Despite the strong opposition from the affected minorities, the federal government supported the atrocities by amending the Constitution that the government has the full ownership on all lands within Nigeria and compensation will be based on the crops and products located in the land during the taking and not the actual value of the land. These further allow the taking of foreign oil corporations on almost all of the lands in Oganiland with the help of the government (â€Å"Minorities at Risk. A Country Case Study. †). In the 1980s, the situation of Oganiland and the Oganis deteriorated economically, socially, politically and environmentally. Dissatisfaction and discontent among the people in Oganiland steadily mounts that in 1992 they formed the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP). It became the main organization campaigning for various issues of the Oganis, primarily ethnic and environmental rights. MOSOP became the main opposition of the Nigerian government and foreign oil companies in Oganiland (Agbu). The conflict between MOSOP and oil companies escalated that it resulted to violence disrupting some of the oil companies’ major activities in the area. MOSOP required $10 billion as royalties since the companies started and for the degradation of the environment in Oganiland (Olusakin). However, according to Agbu (2004) the oil companies, Shell, Chevron and the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation, with the help of government authorities answered the MOSOP’s demand through violence also. Mass actions and protests started to occur in a daily basis in Oganiland that resulted the banning of public assembly by the government. It also pronounced as acts of treason any disturbances of oil production and related activities in the area. Militarization and repression rose in 1994 where in four village chiefs were murdered. The head of MOSOP, Ken Saro-Wira was detained because of the killings. Hundreds were also arbitrarily arrested and detained because of the killings. By June of the same year, there were almost 30 villages totally ruined, almost 2,000 deaths and leaving nearly 100,000 Oganis as internal refugees (Human Rights Watch). In 1994 Saro-Wira with other eight Ogani activist were arrested and sentenced to death. They are executed though hanging by the Nigerian government. The deaths of Saro-Wira and his companions enraged the people of Oganiland that resulted to more disruptive and violent actions against the oil companies. The militancy of the Oganis inspired other ethic groups to start their own struggle against the government and the foreign oil companies (Olusakin). The Ijaws organized the Ijaw National Congress and Ijaw youth organized the Ijaw Youth Congress. These two groups raise the political consciousness and militancy of the Ijaw people. They started to lay down their demands against the irresponsive central Nigerian government and to the foreign oil companies. They are asserting that these companies should have direct and concrete plans to uplift the lives of the people in the Niger Delta (Obi). Recently, armed and more militant groups like Niger Delta Peoples Vanguard (NDPV), Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND), Niger Delta People’s Volunteer Force (NDPVF) and the Nigerian Delta Vigilante (NDV) were organized. Although these groups were formed because of the continuous environmental degradation, government neglect and social and political unrest in the area, they are now in conflict on varying ideologies and forms of actions (Obi). Most of them aim to gain control of the area’s rich oil resources. NDPVF and NDV are in conflict with each other. Violence between the groups rose resulting to disruptive activities in Port Harcourt, the Delta’s oil capital. Supporters of NDPVF transferred to NDV escalating more the conflict between the two groups (Agbu). After the local and national elections of 2003, NDPVF announced their all-out war against the government (Olusakin). However, MEND is closely affiliated with NDV. They reached their international reputation when they hijacked oil tankers crossing through the country and nearby countries. They arbitrarily detained workers in the tankers for months and demanding for ransom for their release. Last year, they attacked various oil installations and facilities of oil company Shell that resulted to oil price increase. They also attacked a facility of Chevron, forcing the company to halt operations in the region for that year (Obi). In 2005, the central government called the National Political reform Conference. Representatives of the Niger Delta raised various concerns on the development of the region. Numerous non-government and human rights organization have also called the attention of the central government to introduce reform in the region. There are proposals to divide the region into two, Eastern Niger Delta and Western Niger Delta, to make developmental projects easier to implement (Taylor). The ventral government should also convert new states in the region with at least one city in every state. Taylor (2007) said that federal offices and ministries should also set-up their branches in the region to make government services more accessible to ethnic minorities in the region. The government is also urged to enact legislations compelling oil companies to implement developmental projects in their host communities and strictly follow environmental laws. International civil society groups have also suggested that the central government implement policies to have more transparency in the revenues and fiscal matters on the oil industries. The Washington-based Human Rights Watch (2002) also strongly recommends that state security forces should be investigated and persecuted on their abuses on the civilians in the region (p. 5). The conflict in the region is already decade-old and seems will never end. The Nigerian government should seriously implement reforms and developmental projects in the region to alleviate poverty among its people. The more delay on these developments needed, the more people will be agitated to join the armed resistance fueled by inequality among the oil company and the ethnic minorities of the Niger Delta. Works Cited: Agbu, Osita. (2004). Ethnic Militias and the Threat to Democracy in Post-Transition Nigeria. Uppsala: Nordic African Institue. Barrett, Ejiroghene. â€Å"Why the Troubles in the Niger Delta. † New African 456 (2006): 40-45 â€Å"Minorities at Risk. A Country Case Study. † 2 April 2009. Center fro International Development and Conflict Management. . Olusakin, Ayoka Mopelala. â€Å"Peace in the Niger Delta: Economic Development and the Politics of Dependence on Oil. † International Journal on World Peace 23 (2006): 3 Obi, Cyril (1997). Globalization and Local Resistance: The Case of the Ogoni versus Shell. Ibadan: University of Ibadan. Obi, Cyril (2001). The Changing Forms of Identity Politics in Nigeria under Economic Adjustment: The Case of the Oil Minorities Movement of the Niger Delta. Uppsala: Nordic African Institute. Taylor, Darren. â€Å"Niger Delta and Lack of Infrastructure: Major Issues in Nigeria Elections. † Voice of America. 22 March 2007. 2 April 2009 â€Å"The Niger Delta: No Democratic Dividend. † October 2002. Human Rights Watch. 2 April 2009. < http://www. hrw. org/legacy/reports/2002/nigeria3/nigerdelta. pdf>

Plyler v Doe Essay

When state and local governments try to pass restrictions for education based on legality of the student they are, for the most part, brought to a halt by the court system. The courts cite Plyler v Doe, but why? What does Plyler v Doe do for undocumented students? Before 1982, the year when Plyler v Doe was put into action, some Texas local governments were denying funding for undocumented students and charging them a tuition fee of $1,000.00 per year. The original policy stated that the school district could withhold funds for educating children who were not legally documented within the United States. It allowed these districts to determine who was denied access to enrollment. The Supreme Court found this policy to be a violation of the children’s Fourteenth Amendment. The fourteenth Amendment states a broad definition of citizenship claiming that children born to immigrants were still citizen’s here. The Supreme Court stated that children were powerless, they had absolutely no control that their parents had crossed the boarder into the country illegally. They also thought that not educating these children would lead to progressively worse problems. Undocumented children have the same right to free public education and are obligated to attend school until they reach the age mandated by the state laws. Plyler v Doe also states that schools may not require children to prove, by document or green card, their legal citizenship but just that they live within the attendance zone of the school district. It also states that schools cannot require a social security number by the children or force them to obtain one. If a school system wants them on file, they may send out a request (in all appropriate languages) stating that if the parents want to put it in their child’s file, they may. Free and reduced lunch is determined based on the income of the family and not the student’s family legal status. In order to obtain free or reduced lunch a student needs the social security numbers of all members in the family 21 years of age and older. If there are members in the family without a social security number they must indicate it with a â€Å"none† on the worksheet. The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act prohibits outside agencies from getting the information from these lunch worksheets without a court order. Along those same lines, schools are not allowed to give any information to the INS either. If I were to have been one of those voting on Plyler v Doe, I would have been with the five who had decided that it was wrong to deny these children of their education. I also believe that these children had literally no control over their parent’s decisions. If a parent decides that they are going to illegally reside in a country, a child has no vote whether or not they go. Who are we to decide that a child does not get an education? Wouldn’t denying an education cause more harm and more problems than allowing them access to school? I think that all children, no matter their documented status, deserve the same things one of which being an education and the opportunity to better themselves, their families and their future.

Protest Poetry

Protest songs make serious comment on the issues of their time. Discuss with detailed reference to the issues and techniques in two songs studied in class and one of your own choosing. Protest songs are the product of their times. Composers utilise the medium to make meaningful comment on the issues of their era in an attempt to influence viewpoints and bring back change. ‘Dear Mr President’ by Pink criticises the presidency of George w bush and the issues he raised with his decisions. These issues were homosexual rights/ marriage, homelessness, poverty, war/ us. oles, women’s rights and the justice system. â€Å"Sunday bloody Sunday’ by U2 criticizes the unnecessary bloodshed that occurred as a result of the violence connected with the Irish troubles on Jan 30, 1972. ‘skyscraper’ by Demi Lovado criticizes the issues of bullying, body image, and self mutilation in today’s society. These songs all express opinions about issues of relevan ce to their societies for the future. These songs all express opinions about relevance to their societies, ultimately in an attempt to enforce a positive change to the world. In 2007 Pink released the song Dear Mr.President. The song is a direct criticism of President George W. Bush and the policies of his administration. Pink addresses the major concerns of most Americans. The most evident of these concerns are homosexual rights/ marriage, homelessness, women’s rights, war/US roles, poverty and the justice system. The song begins with â€Å"Come take a walk with me. Let’s pretend we’re just two people and you’re not better than me. † By stating this as an invitation Pink is directly asking the President to listen to her opinions utilising imperative verbs and a gentle tone.Pink is stating that she will be truthful and not sugar coat her opinions. She will tell him the truth about what everyone is thinking but no one is willing to tell him directly . metaphor is utilised to portray the ideas Pink has. The complete second and third stanzas are rhetorical questions addressing the issues the President has caused. The rhetorical questions are using emotive language to appeal to the listeners’ heart. The rhetorical questions are also using direct address to the President to show perspective of the issues and showing them so they relate to him.At the end of the third stanza when Pink asks â€Å"How do you walk with your head held high? Can you even look me in the eye and tell me why? † she uses negative connotations to show the pride or lack of pride he holds. The complete fifth stanza is using personal address by using examples of his own family and putting them in the places of the people affected by his choices, and rhetorical questions. â€Å"What kind of father would take his own daughter’s rights away? And what kind of father might hate is own daughter if she were gay? The rhetorical questions are address ing Bush’s personal life and relationship with his daughter by putting a negative aspect onto it by saying he would hate her if she were gay. The effect of this is to show how unfair the President is being to people and how he should change his ways. This song makes serious comment on the issues of the President’s actions and decisions. Sunday bloody Sunday focuses on the ongoing issues of conflict between protestants and the Catholics in northern island, which culminated in the loss of lives on a day known as bloody Sunday.The composer highlights the futility of the ongoing troubles and makes a call for change. A metaphor is utilised in the rhetorical question’ how ling must we sing this song? ’ to draw attention to the long period of time these troubles have been occurring. Direct address is employed in ‘we can be as one tonight’ in order to persuade people to put an end to the violence. Alliteration paired with evocative imagery reinforces the emotive impact of the message. ‘broken bottles under children’s feet/ bodies strewn across the dead end street. This is further demonstrated through a metaphor â€Å"the trench is dug within our hearts†, conveying the impact this is having on people’s emotions. The word choice ‘trench’ links the audience’s minds to war. The composer sends a powerful message by using a biblical allusion â€Å"the real battle has just begun/ to claim the victory Jesus won. † Calling on Christians to unite with a common purpose rather than engage in fighting. The issue of religious conflict is clearly an important one that holds relevance for contemporary society. In 2011 Demi Lovado released the song Skyscraper.Skyscraper focuses on the ongoing issue of bullying, self hate, and body image. The composer highlights the futility of the ongoing troubles and makes a call for change. The song begins with â€Å"Skies are crying, I am watching†¦ catching teardrops in my hands. Only silence has its ending like we never had a chance. Do you have to make me feel like there’s nothing left of me? † The tone of this is a soft, sad/ lonely whisper to show how vulnerable the composer is feeling, but slowly leads up to a louder stronger tone. Personification is employed which gives the effect of showing how she eels by using a large mass of to show the emotion the composer is feeling. A rhetorical question is used to show how she is feeling as though everything has been taken from her, making her feel worthless. In the chorus the metaphor â€Å"You can take everything I have, you can break everything I am† is used to show that things are changing for her but she is getting better and stronger to not care as much about the issues. â€Å"Like I’m made of glass, like I’m made of paper† uses repetition to portray the effect of feeling weak but knowing you’re much stronger.This is shown be cause the substances referred to are paper and glass which are very weak and easy to break. In the third stanza emotive language is used. â€Å"Would it make you feel better to watch me while I bleed? † This is relating to her issues of self harm and how it would make people feel to watch her do it. The emotive language reference is said in an angry tone with high volume. This is to show how fed up of feeling bad about herself she is. This song suggests that bullying and self image issues are clearly an important one that holds relevance for contemporary society.

Book Report on Management Challenges for the 21st Century By Peter F Term Paper

Book Report on Management Challenges for the 21st Century By Peter F. Drucker - Term Paper Example As a teacher, philosopher, reporter and consultant, he had a very in-depth vision on politics, economics and social transitions which enabled him to guide his followers and readers with a wider and a modern perception of the management and its theories. Drucker authored more than twenty five books with his very debut scholastic work bearing the title, â€Å"The End of Economic Man† which was published in the year 1939. His book, â€Å"Management Challenges for the 21st Century† appeared in the year 1982 and provides an insightful and contemporary information for the benefit of individuals and organizations at the same platform as Drucker has almost united the two separate entities in his book and views their common objective towards the attainment of one common goal. Drucker views the 21st century as the period of â€Å"Profound Transition† as this era witnessed lots of social, political and economic upheavals starting from the World War to great Economic Depress ion. Drucker with his coherent knowledge and foresightedness tried to shape the course of business and management that he visions to classify the future course of commerce amid all the socio-economic and socio-political transitions across the globe. Management Challenges for the 21st Century: A Detailed Insight The era of 21st century is a time of metamorphosis according to Drucker. Amidst the structural changes taking place around, Drucker views five socio-political events that will certainly tend to shape the business and its strategy in the near future. He takes in to consideration the fall of birth rates in the developed countries of the world, transitions in the area of distribution of disposable income, paradigm shift and re-definition of corporate activities and performances, competition in the global market, and the growth of incongruence between the economic and political pragmatism as the factors that would influence much in the reshaping and reincarnating modern course of management, its strategies and businesses. Next, Drucker throws light on the issue of the requirements of leadership. He muses in an elegant style, â€Å"One cannot manage change. One can only be ahead of it†. He visions that in the era of the â€Å"new information revolution† influence of characteristics of which are very much evident in the modern commerce, it is important to focus on the information and its meaning and not on the technology through which it is collected. As regards to the productivity of the knowledge workers, Drucker in his epoch making documentation on modern business and its strategy captivated in the â€Å"Management Challenges of the 21st Century† makes a very contemporary and relevant commentary. He views that the nature of the work for a knowledge workers are quite different from that of the physical labourers and under this circumstance, knowledge workers unlike manual workers, must not be considered as costs but must be treated as c apital assets. And finally, he throws light on the responsibilities that knowledge workers must assume in management pertaining to area of their self-development and their career. Actually very few people influenced the course of business individually in the 20th century to the extent like that of Peter Drucker. He literally invented and redefined management as a discipline in the year 1950s. Before reshaping and redefining management as a major course of study, it was much

Ethics of Neuro-Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Ethics of Neuro-Marketing - Essay Example Due to the historical challenges the advertising industry has experienced in trying to prove the return on adverting spending, neuro-marketing has been given somewhat fast adoption in the previous five years (Micu &Plummer, 1). Despite the fact that the prospect of enhanced advertising has created excitement within the business community in general, serious ethical matters have been raised as well by scientists, scholars, and consumer groups (Murphy, Illes, & Reiner, 1). However, the industry pays no attention to these concerns (Christophe, 1). The State of Advertising Ethics Ethical advertising could be described as the production and broadcasting of commercial messages which promote goods or services without lying to the public (Bishop, 2). Shockingly, both the advertising and the marketing industries have a not so good reputation concerning the application of ethical standards. A survey carried out by Gallup in 2011 positioned the advertising occupation at the bottom of the honest y scale with no more than eleven percent partakers ranking advertising practitioners with high or very high scores, placing them just four points above lobbyists and car salespeople (Christophe, 2). The Federal Trade Commission (FTC), formed during 1914, is in charge of keeping consumers protected from advertisers who are unethical or unscrupulous. In the long run, the Federal Trade Commission has identified universal conditions upon which a message is considered to breach the standard of â€Å"truth-in-advertising† (FTC, 2011).  

CAPITAL BUDGETING Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

CAPITAL BUDGETING - Research Paper Example Moreover, it is a decision process that focuses on long-term investment for revenue and expenditure. My paper will be based on discussion of United State budgeting as a reference but the framework is applicable to the most part to any budgeting system whether national, state, or local, or whether it is in Europe or any other continent. Budgeting is done as a way of setting objectives and goals, for allocation of the resources essential to attain the objectives, for determining progress toward objectives, identifying inadequacies, and for controlling and integrating the diverse activities carried out by many sub-units within large bureaucracies both public and private (Rubin, 2004). Debt capacity refers to the ability of the government to make required debt service payments and to be able to pay back debt incurred without ruining its reputation either to other states or individuals. Therefore,this section will deal with the speculative issues affecting state debt management and accounts on a state debt financing policies and debt limits. State debt management processes and practices are important factors in the preparation of capital budgeting in order to ensure that the government is able to equalize the level of debt and/or debt services relative to current revenue that an providing entity can support and undue budgetary constraints that can affect the ability of the government to repay the debt on time does not arise. Therefore, when coming up with a capital budget, current expenditures are financed by current revenues while capital expenditures can be financed by borrowed funds. Debt financing is refunded by the cost of using public investments by the taxpa yers on the â€Å"benefit received† principle. The government uses a portion of taxes paid by the taxpayers as a way to ensure future taxpayers bear their â€Å"fair share† as a way to pay the debt incurred to provide public facilities. Secondly, debt capacity is determined

Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 39

Leadership - Essay Example Nobody was ready to settle for the status quo. In addition, everyone was looking for newer and better ways of accomplishing our goals through very practical ideas and highly original thoughts. Most of the members of the group were able to quickly discard impartibly ideas and adapt practical useful ones and every person took their responsibilities very seriously. It was so easy to work with our group because people were ready to work and ready to put in hard work both physically and mentally. We were amazed by each other and this led to peer respect among ourselves. It also made communication within the group very easy. We did not assign a leader for the group but we found out that Hether was the leader initially for the practical reason that we needed at least for one person to chair the discussions so we could go ahead with our work. This was also agreed upon without much ceremony among the group. There was really no reason for too much emphasis on the leader’s role since it was agreed that we would all participate on an equal basis within the group and that decisions would be arrived at democratically or because of what made the best sense. There was no power struggle as we all worked well together and no particular leader was assign to hold power. The only problem that was presented by this arrangement was that we had no leader to make the final decision. We solved this by deciding to take votes in order to adapt or sanction decisions through majority. The other challenge that we faced was the issue of time management because everybody had different schedules and finding the right time for us all to do our group activity was a bit of a challenge but we finally managed to pull through. The best description that fits my group’s situation is the democratic style, which is participative. This is because it values all the input of all group members. Our group’s morale was very high and everyone was

Brainscapes Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Brainscapes - Case Study Example Concentration of sodium (Na+) ions in the intracellular and extracellular space of tissues was the major identifier of hippocampus atrophy (with dead neurons). According to this case, brain tissues showing signs of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) had dead neurons and appear smaller than usual by expansion of the extracellular space and shrinkage of intracellular space. 2. Expected Sodium Concentration Changes The change of sodium concentration in the hippocampus region is used to differentiate healthy tissues from diseased ones in that unhealthy tissues have shrunk. It follows then that the hippocampus volume or processes are directly correlated with sodium concentration within and without the extracellular and intracellular space. Decreased volume of the hippocampus can possibly occur when neurons inside have died or are not functioning at their optimum levels. One expected change or difference is a difference in concentration of sodium ions in extracellular space and intracellular space commonly called a gradient difference. This differential concentration of sodium gradient normally occurs due to defects of Na+/K+ ATPase pump which may be blocked. Brain tissues afflicted by AD usually have a smaller volume than normal ones and identified by extracellular space that is expanded as well as shrinkage of the intracellular space. 3. Additional Information from Outside Sources Journal Article: Tissue Sodium Concentration in Human Brain Tumors as Measured with 23Na MR Imaging. Sourced from Radiology Journal Journal article: Brain tissue sodium concentration in multiple sclerosis: a sodium imaging study at 3 tesla. Sourced from National Center for Biotechnology Information database Journal Article: Na+ and K+ ion imbalances in Alzheimer's disease. Sourced from National Center for Biotechnology Information database Journal article: Distribution of Brain Sodium Accumulation Correlates with Disability in Multiple Sclerosis: A Cross-sectional 23Na MR Imaging Study. Sour ced from Radiology Journal 4. Outside Sources Contribution to the case The source (Ouwerkerk, Ronald, et al.) asserts that the concentration gradient difference of Na in tissues can be used to differentiate healthy tissues from affected one. Another source (Inglese, M., et al.) has findings that mechanisms of injury can be diagnosed through Na magnetic imaging. The third source (Vitvitsky V.M.) is of the opinion that failure of previous research come up with findings on cell homeostasis can be a basis of understanding development and progression of AD. Finally the last source (Zaaraoui, Wafaa, et al.) comes up with the finding that tissue injury can be diagnosed with NA imaging. 5. Case Study Finding that is Consistent with other Sources All the sources normally use differential concentration gradient of sodium in the intracellular space and extracellular space to come up with their findings. In this manner, atrophic tissues are identified from healthy ones after imaging. 6. Inconcl usive information with Sodium Concentration Changes Although using differential concentration to assay for atrophic tissues and organs can be very effective, it can also give wrong misdiagnosis especially when movement of sodium ions is impeded by other factors. For example, there can be sodium ions leakage due to a defective Na+K+ ATPase pump. 7. Resolution of the Case Sodium imaging can be a helpful technique

Assignment Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Assignment - Research Proposal Example Posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) injuries are the most rare injuries.(1- JM) Most suspected knee disorders become diagnosed first through conventional radiographs (X-rays). These radiographs are effective in demonstrating fractures because the show bones and joint spaces. Their sensitivity to soft tissue conditions remains low except in conditions where the tissues contain mush calcium or fat. X-rays are also relatively insensitive to destruction of medullary bone and loss of cartilage as well. The basic examination consists of lateral and ante posterior (AP) projections of the knee.(Carmen MartÄ ±Ã‚ ´n-Herva ´s) Radiographs and CTs remain effective modalities for post-operative imaging following ACL reconstruction. CTs, however, depict femoral tunnel in more accurate manner than radiographs. The radiation dosage however, is almost double that of the radiographs and this should be effective considered when utilizing CTs over radiographs ( Anagha et al). Plain radiographs provide limited assistance in dealing with sports related injuries. They can only be indicated in circumstances where there is significant impact injury. Positive findings are however, occasionally demonstrated in ACL disruptions, where there is depression of the lateral femoral notch, and segond fracture. Computed Tomography (CT) provides effective analysis for categorizing fracture of the tibia plateau. Ultrasound imaging is utilized minimally together with magnetic resonance imaging when analyzing many knee injuries. Ultrasound becomes reliable in assessment of quadriceps and patellar tendons, when symptoms of injury are located within the anterior joint, and are focal. Ultrasound easily identifies collateral ligaments. Injuries to these ligaments are however associated with derangement and MRI becomes essential in demonstrating the full spectrum of the injury (12- EUGENE G). MRI utilizes high soft tissue contrast and multiplanar capability in

The History of Toyota Corporation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The History of Toyota Corporation - Essay Example   Accordingly, the reporters averred that â€Å"safety analysts found an estimated 2000 cases in which owners of Toyota cars including Camry, Prius, and Lexus, reported that their cars surged without warning up to speeds of 100 miles per hour† (Ross, et.al., 2009, par. 2). As a result, there have been congressional hearings scheduled to investigate the complaints and the cases focusing on the safety problems posed by Toyota cars in the US. In this regard, this essay aims to evaluate whether or not Toyota was treated fairly in those hearings. When evaluating the congressional hearings, there are diverse sides that must be considered, to wit: Toyota’s explanation, The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), testimonies from safety research institutes and other automotive authorities, the victims of the runaway cars, and the public. Toyota’s defense through James Lentz, president, and COO of Toyota US revealed in his testimony that â€Å"no proble ms exist with the electric throttle control system in our vehicles. Rather, floor mats and sticky accelerators are to blame" (Farber, 2010, par. 7). Two testimonies, however, blamed the accidents on the electrical malfunction with testimonial reports and personal testing and analysis. The side of the NHTSA is being criticized due to previous agency investigators subsequently being employed by Toyota. Any investigation on the sudden acceleration accidents could have been influenced and biased due to connections with Toyota. However, the hearings found â€Å"no violation for these two employees† (Schone & Rhee, 2010, 3). The victims have filed legal cases against Toyota for having sustained injuries with deaths to family members. Also at risk are the public who could be victims of these kinds of car accidents.

Sodium thiosulphate investigation Essay Example for Free

Sodium thiosulphate investigation Essay What is the middle of the atom called? The nucleus. 2 What two types of particle are found here? Protons and neutrons. 3 The electrons are arranged in shells (also called energy levels). How many can be held in the first shell? Two. 4 How many can be held in the second shell? Eight. 5 How many can be held in the third shell? Eight. 6 Where are the non-metals located in the periodic table? In the top right-hand corner. 7 What are the horizontal rows in the periodic table called? Periods. 8 What are the vertical columns called? Groups. 9 What is the name of Group 1? The Alkali Metals. 10 What is the name of Group 7? The Halogens. 11 What is the name of Group 0? The Noble Gases. 12 Elements in the same group have the same number of what? The same number of outer electrons. 13 Do elements in the same group have similar chemical or similar physical properties? Similar chemical properties. 14 Elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of what? Increasing atomic number. 15 Which of these elements has the greatest atomic number? Element B. 16 What is the electron arrangement of element C? 2. 8. 7 17 What is the electron arrangement of element E? 2. 8. 1 18 Which of the elements are very reactive metal and why? Elements D E they are in Group 1 (The alkali metals). 19 Which of the elements is a very unreactive non-metal and why? Element F it is in Group 0 (The noble gases). 20 Name the first four halogens. 1. Fluorine 2. Chlorine 3. Bromine 4. Iodine 21 What happens to the reactivity of the halogens as you go down the group (increasing atomic number)? They become less reactive. 22 What happens to the colour of these elements down the group? They become darker in colour. 23 What happens to the boiling point of these elements down the group? Their boiling points increase. 24 What does fluorine look like? A pale yellow gas. 25 What does chlorine look like? A green gas. 26 Name two uses for chlorine. 1. Killing bacteria in water. 2. Making bleaches. 27 What does bromine look like? A red -brown liquid (which evaporates easily to make an orange-brown gas). 28 What colour is bromine dissolved in water? Orange-brown. 29 What is the name of the compound formed when potassium reacts with bromine? Potassium bromide. 30 What colour is this compound when dissolved in water? Colourless. 31 What does iodine look like? A shiny grey-black solid (which produces a purple gas when gently heated). 32 What colour is iodine dissolved in water? Brown. 33 What is this iodine solution used for? An antiseptic. 34 What is the name of the compound formed when sodium reacts with iodine? Sodium iodide. 35 What colour is this compound when dissolved in water? Colourless. 36 What is the name of compounds of the halogens? Halides. 37 List two observations when sodium reacts with chlorine. 1. The metal burns with a yellow flame. 2. A white solid is produced. 38 What is the name of the product of this reaction? Sodium chloride. 39 What is its chemical formula? NaCl 40 List two observations when iron wool reacts with chlorine. 1. The metal glows red. 2. A brown solid is produced. 41 What is the name (and chemical formula) of the product this time? Iron chloride (FeCl3). 42 What is formed in this reaction: bromine + potassium iodide? potassium bromide + iodine 43 Which of these compounds will NOT react with chlorine: a) sodium fluoride; b) potassium bromide? sodium fluoride (Chlorine is less reactive than fluorine and so cannot displace it from fluorides. ) 44 What is a compound? A substance made by chemically joining two or more elements together. 45 Compounds have similar properties to the elements they are made from. Is this true or false? False they have completely different properties, eg sodium chloride is nothing like either sodium or chlorine. 46 What is the name for the substances on the left of a chemical equation? The reactants (or starting materials). 47 What is the name for the substances on the right? The products. 48 What do the symbols (s), (l) and (g) stand for in chemical equations? Solid, liquid and gas 49 What does the symbol (aq) stand for in chemical equations? Aqueous (which means dissolved in water). 50 What is meant by reaction rate? How fast a reaction goes. 51 List four ways of increasing the rate of a reaction. 1. Increasing the temperature. 2. Increasing the concentration of a reactant. 3. Increasing the surface area of a solid. 4. Adding a catalyst. 52 What is a catalyst? A chemical which speeds up a reaction but which does not get used up. 53 Does the catalyst appear in the chemical equation for the reaction? No (because it does not get used up). 54 What are enzymes? Catalysts produced by living things. 55 Why dont enzymes work if the temperature is too high? They become denatured (damaged) by the heat. 56 What two things about line A show that it represents a faster reaction? 1. It starts more steeply. 2. It levels off sooner. 57 How can you tell that both lines A and B were obtained using the same amounts of the reactants? They both produced the same amount of product in the end. 58 Increasing the temperature makes the particles move around more quickly. Give two reasons why this makes the reaction faster. 1. The collisions occur more often. 2. More of the collisions have enough energy to lead to a reaction Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Patterns of Behaviour section.

Learning Team Reflection Essay Example for Free

Learning Team Reflection Essay Training Plan Implementing an effective training plan is necessary in order for a company to be successful. A structured training plan for Landslide Limousines will ensure employees are aware of the company’s objectives and goals. According to Bradley Stonefield, the training plan for Landslide Limousine will entail three key components a set of needs assessment, types of training methods, and training evaluations strategies. Training offers reliable information and skill to an employee about the company’s prospects and procedures. Properly trained employees contribute to a company’s achievement of goals and ultimate success. Each team member chose topics to evaluate and research effectively and apply there relevance towards the team discussion. Our first communication with Bradley Stonefield informed Atwood and Allen that he wishes to hire 25 employees and have a location in Austin, Texas. The second conversation with Mr. Stonefield led to information regarding the annual net revenue of negative $50,000 in his first year and a growth prediction of 5% over a couple of years. Most recently, Atwood and Allen has learned that Mr. Stonefield predicts that his annual employee turnover rate will be 10%, and his concern on cost for the training plan. The needs assessment constitutes several aspects revolving around the daily operations, individual employees, environment, organizational and demographical information of a business. Operational Analysis Designing an operational plan for the Landslide Limousine service determines the efficiency of various aspects within the small business operation. The  process usually begins with a period of observations, the group of individuals performing the analysis watches and takes detailed notes on a day-to-day operation of the limousine business in the initial stage. Logical reasoning methods assist in compiling the information used in the process with various mathematical models and statistical analysis. Operational analysis aims to determine whether each area of the organization is contributing effectively to overall performance and the furthering of company strategy. Using the operational analysis to ensure that the business Mr. Bradley wants to start should align appropriately with the company’s strategic plan. By examining the current performance of the operational portion of an investment, and then measuring that against an established set of performance parameters and goals, operational analysis within the business can reveal the company’s strengths and weaknesses as well as any opportunities for improvement with the individuals he may want to hire for future employment. With all the detailed information our team gathered in order to best serve and provide the right information for this business, by conducting an operational analysis, this should seek to examine a number of functional areas within the business; including strategic planning, customer results, and business results, financial performance, and quality of innovation. Now, the objective process should principally be to reassess existing processes and determine how objectives improve, how costs minimized and even, on occasion, eliminating a task. Operational analysis can be a relatively simple process for the company and meaningful in assisting a new business venture. Through a few manageable steps in the process, Landslide Limousine needs to assess their productivity and possibly reallocate investments to ensure activities within the company are in line with the small business company’s strategy. Studies prove that establishing a schedule benefits the completion of the process. This process may outline the timeline and resources necessary for completing the operational analysis. Outline strategies and methods accordingly and adhere to them during the process. Collect information to provide key insights into actual performance in comparison with strategic planning and performance goals. Complete an analysis gap to identify and report performance, cost and benefits based on an analysis of the actual performance data. Demographic Analysis According to Bradley Stonefield, the demographic analysis that needs to be address is a specific population to describe the small business and its characteristics, such as income level, background checks, driving records, location and salaries. A demographic analysis is useful in a business plan, to describe the population where the business is located. Income level data is a good indicator of residents’ spending power. Income positively correlates with retail expenditures in many product categories. During market evaluation, retailers look at the median or average household income, and seek a minimum number of households within a certain income range prior to establishing a business or setting prices. Another common practice is to analyze the distribution of household incomes. Different businesses may avoid extremely high or low-income areas. Some specialty fashion stores target incomes above $100,000. Background checks often requested by employers for job candidates during e mployment screening, especially on candidates seeking a position that require high security or trust. Traditionally, background checks administered by a government agency for a nominal fee, but maybe administered by private companies. Background checks can be expensive depending on the information requested. Results of a background check typically include past employment verification, credit history, Driving history for a small business aspect and criminal history. Mr. Stonefield is interested in locating a limousine company within the Austin, TX area. A small business is unlikely to dominate any particular market in a city. However, strategic use of location-based marketing can make you a viral hit in your suburb or street and this may be all it takes to double the turnover in the limousine business. Location-based services can provide the company with information about how many people check in for a certain area or business, which has checked in most often and how many people have used an offer of this kind of service. This kind of information can be very useful in assessing the success of the company’s location-based marketing program. The average wage for a Limousine Driver is $12.85 per hour in the state of Texas in 2011. People in this job generally do not have more than 20 years’ experience. Pay for this job rises steadily for more experienced workers, but goes down significantly for the few employees with more than 20 years experience. Limo drivers have limited career advancement  opportunities. Some acquire supervisory or management positions, while others train new drivers or receive preferred shifts. Moving into a dispatching or managerial role is another choice for experienced limo drivers. Organizational Analysis Organizational Analysis for this company is a means of measuring how the small business will do and how to identify ways to improve the company in order to ensure success into the future of the company. A strategic way in preparing this aspect is to use the SWOT analysis. This stands for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. These factors make up the bulk of the way the study and be analyzed and can give a in great details a pretty good indication of how Landslide Limousine will do and how it could be expected to do move forward in the future in making profits. The results of the analysis will help Mr. Stonefield be able to make good decisions and improve any efficiencies while without making any major changes. Strengths within Landslide services are usually the starting point for this company. Internal/external factors should include a stable workforce, methods and simple strategies are a way to mainstream the total aspects of all local business within the area is which this is a key aspect. Weaknesses can come from all different locations and can be widespread. This may include aging facilities, possible inexperienced/unprofessional drivers, outdated equipment, purchasing of quality vehicles fleets, price/packages, and areas of specialties. Opportunities should include new market creations, consumer based locations, overhead, and debts. Now, threats could possibly take on another aspect within the business. These can range just from local communities services to government products/services to the rules and regulations. Individual Analysis Certain ideals manifest in behaviors of individual members and affect group dynamics. Task functions include behaviors such as identifying tasks, coordinating, clarifying and summarizing. Individual Analysis based off different levels and/or services provided by the limousine service help to decipher if business needs are met. This type of analysis can be based off a wide stream of studies in business. This specific analysis can have more disadvantages than advantages needed in order to find ways to being a  business. Learning how to work effectively in a group situation is the key to success in many professions in business. Learning key ways to get the business from crawl, walk, run phase is another way employees have the advantage of learning how the aspects of business work in the community. Environmental Analysis This analysis scan can help assist in understanding the broader context in which individuals are operating in. By investing time, identifying key trends and environmental factors to obtain information for small business within the regions in which we want to base our business and all the studies that are included. Some small businesses and organizations frequently choose to review the external factors in the process, but it is important to consider the internal environment factors. These may include looking at the organization’s internal capacities and resources, and projecting how to change in the future to meet the organization objectives. Another useful component to the analysis phase is to survey external customers in the local area and ensure all aspects of the locations are covered. Challenges observed and/or anticipated, or missed opportunities, and even basis such as how others described your individual work to get the process started may have a short-time or long-term effect. Environmental analysis uses a series of ranks and assessments in evaluating employee performance, customer satisfaction, and overhead coat are all similar factors during the first phase of the analysis. Training Methods Appropriate training is liable to have a positive or negative affect on important issues in business. How a company conducts, training is a critical decision that every business has to make consciously. All features involved in effective training should be considered, such as, time, cost, training environment, and training cost. The delivery of the training is pertinent. If the delivery of the information is confusing to employees, the training does not occur properly and is a waste of time, resources, and capital (Ongoing Training: A Method for Success, 2012). Various approaches to training are utilized and implemented. Types of Media Considering the impression Landslide Limousines anticipates on making, Atwood  and Allen Consulting recommends technology-based training. Technology-based learning may prove to be beneficial. Basic methods of learning through technology include interactive videos utilizing a computer in combination with a digital video (DVD). Web-based training programs or internet-streamed videos such as â€Å"YouTube† videos are increasing, popular tools among training methods. The aforementioned method is valuable in illustrating scenarios that the trainer would like to emphasize. These methods are conducive within a large group of people. Learning Principles When opting to use technology-based learning, companies must ensure accessibility for employees. Learning principles, considered laws of learning, are discovered, tested, and benefit practical situations (Naval education and Training, 2010). The trainer must possess the capability of applying the principles while instructing. Most importantly, the trainer needs to be clear on the objectives of the training, and relate it to the work environment. There are three types of learners: visual, hearing and hands-on. Atwood and Allen Consulting recommend that Landslide Limousine combine the training methods and perform more interactive learning experiences that will accommodate the three types of learners. Using what the military medicine has called for years â€Å"See one, do one, teach one† (Naval education and Training, 2010). The trainer will teach the skill so the employees can see it, then the employees will demonstrate their knowledge displaying their proficiency, finally the employee will teach a new employee. Those that teach, learn. Trainers will be inclined to become familiar with the material, recall it accurately, and apply it effectively. This method is cost effective in the sense that when there is a time one employee must carry out the tasks of another, therefore causing no interruptions in business. This method works best for companies that are just beginning. Training for learning skills or fact The required training conducted is for skill and fact. The training enhances knowledge of skills that enforce relevant facts, in reference to training. Effectiveness of Methods The effectiveness of the methods of instructions can be verified by how the employee perform their duties, by employee’s questionnaires and/or testing,  and by comments done by the trainers themselves (Naval Education and Training, 2010). The effectiveness of these methods displayed through the performance of the employees. Training Evaluation Strategies Evaluation on training is of utmost importance. Here is where a business learns of training that works versus training that is of no use to the organization. In order to evaluate specific training, addressing certain questions alleviate concerns of risk in that course of training. Potential questions are: Did the trainees learn a specific skill, knowledge or performance? Did change occur and was it related to the training? Are the changes positively reflecting in productivity and to achieving organization goals? Will these changes occur with a different set of trainees using the same training criteria? (Chapter 8, 2013) Typically, training is a trial and error system. What may work for one individual may not necessarily pertain to another type of learner. As mentioned previously, people learn in different manners. Some need visual aesthetics to increase their ability to comprehend the training. While others’ need a more tactile experience and participate in the training. This is not an entirely new concept and has developed over the last decade to include the use of technology to enhance learning. The same can be said for training and evaluation strategies. The idea behind training evaluation is to recognize the criteria of the training are met within the company. Using pretests to determine a suitable new hire reassures current employees that the individual grasps the goals and concepts of the business. An example of a pretest is as simple as an application, a resume or orientation. All of this information allows management to decipher an individual based on experiences. Once training is underway, management will monitor and observe the associates reactions and the trainer’s methods of approach. This segment is extremely important considering the trainer. If the trainer does not connect with the class or leads them astray and off topic, the training becomes worthless and consumes the organization’s time and money. The trainer’s obligation shall remain cost effective to the company and stay on task to complete the training in a time efficient manner. Aside from management monitoring and observing, feedback is equally important, and can  come from employees, supervisors, managers, and customers. Collecting feedback for an organization is conducted a number of ways. Suggestion boxes placed randomly around the business provide anonymous suggestions from individuals employed in the organization or from customers who believe change is necessary. Feedback is also collected verbally either in a group of employees or individual basis. Sending surveys to clients containing pertinent information to the limousine service allows them to feel connected to the business and builds trust. The implementation of the feedback is the most important aspect to changing the current operational standards of the business. Manager’s need to rise above the concept of â€Å"if it’s not broken, don’t fix it.† Business evolution is constant and technology increases daily allowing change to happen more frequently, and not because â€Å"it’s broken,† but because a new element has become known and can be a useful tool in training. References Email from Traci: Performance Management Plan. (2015). Retrieved from University of Phoenix: https://ecampus.phoenix.edu/secure/aapd/Materials/IP/curriculum/sb/HRM531/assignments/week5/intro.asp Naval education and Training. (2010). Personal Qualification Standards for Master Training Specialist. NAVEDTRA 43100-7C Ch. 1. Retrieved from Naval education and Training website Ongoing Training: A Method for Success. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.lctmag.com/operations/article/41017/ongoing-training-a-method-for-success http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes533041.htm http://education-portal.com/articles/Salary_and_Career_Info_for_a_Limo_Driver.html http://www.studymode.com/essays/Individual-Analysis-Of-Working-In-a-712116.html

History of the Atom Discovery

History of the Atom Discovery Mohammad Shahraan Khan  Phys Helen O’Keefe The secrets of atom Democritus was the first one to suggest that objects are made from something called atoms. Although Democritus was an ancient Greek philosopher, the word ‘atoms’ is from the Greek word atoma which means individual. Democritus was around from 460 – 370 BC and he further deduced that atoms are solid spheres and that they can’t be split anymore. Next, Aristotle who was also an ancient Greek philosopher, offered that items or objects were made from ‘Elements’. He said that the elements are either earth, wind, fire, and water and the properties to go with it for example dry, cold, hot, wet. Something could be made by joining elements together and could be converted into other things by adding other elements. Aristotle’s atomic theory was to show that anything made with fire could be either hot or dry or if anything was made with earth, this could be either dry or cold. At that time arguments were established by thought, reason and debate, there were no experiments as experiments were thought to be vulgar. Now as Aristotle was a wealthy man and was treated as a celebrity, his explanations were based on familiar experiences, he made conclusions based on what he saw for example snow and fire joined together makes water. Whereas Democritus was not as popular and nobody wanted to believe him as his theory was saying that atoms couldn’t be seen. Basically Aristotle’s theory was the basis of atoms all the way to the middle ages. In addition, Robert Boyle who was around from 1627 – 1691, studied gases and conferred the likelihood of atoms existing. He predicted that elements are made from something called ‘corpuscles’. He stated that atoms are organised in groups and that different groups are different chemical substances. It was around his time that experiments has started to come around. Moreover, Isaac Newton was another scientist who was around 1643 – 1727, he also studied gases. He is famous for being the one who discovered gravity. He proposed a mechanical universe where solid masses were in movement. Also that atoms/particles are not stationary. Furthermore, Antoine Lavoisier who was around 1627 – 1691 became known as the father of modern chemistry. He was an excellent experimentalist, and as such he assembled an accurate and precise balance to investigate oxidation. He demonstrated that when a substance is oxidised, the increase in its mass is equal to the mass lost by the surrounding air. He stated one of the most fundamental laws of science which is the mass conservation law and it states that matter cannot be created nor destroyed. Additionally, John Dalton was around from 1766 – 1844 and he suggested a theory of atoms, which are that elements consists of tiny particles called atoms. Atoms of the same element are alike whereas atoms of different elements vary in size, mass and other properties. Atoms cannot be divided, created or destroyed. Compounds (molecules) are made when different elements are joined together in whole-number ratios. In a chemical reaction, atoms are linked, separated or rearranged. Likewise, during the 19th Century, people were eager to find new elements and by 1860, 60 new elements had been discovered. Then a scientist called Dimitri Mendeleev who was around in the time of 1834 – 1907, had a concept of classifying the elements. He rearranged the elements in order of ascending atomic weight, he discovered consistent patterns and he invented a table to predict presence of numerous elements. The modern version of the periodic table organises elements according to an ‘atomic number’. An atomic number is number of protons added with number of neutrons. Changes that are given to the modern periodic table are the positions of some elements. Also then in 1857, Heinrich Geissler experiments on whether electricity can still travel, if the air was taken away. So when most of the air was sucked out, the tube still glowed. This attributed the small amount of air left in the tube. He discovered different gases generated different colours of light. People liked this a lot and so used them for entertainment for example neon lights. Energy saving lightbulbs are an example of gas discharge tubes. Then another scientist named Crookes who made a vacuum tube and he made a better vacuum tube than Heinrich Geissler as it sucks more air out. As a result there is no glow in the tube but on the glass at the end of the tub glowed green. There a cross was produced a shadow on the screen. For the vacuum tube, whatever moved the current, travels in a straight line. Crookes designed a lightweight wheel to see if the rays made it turn. The experiment method was to apply a voltage to the apparatus, the wheel moved away from the cathode but the light wouldn’t turn this wheel. Cathode rays must be some kind of small particle. J.J. Thomson who was around 1856 – 1940 wanted to see if the particles could be strayed by a magnet and also if another voltage was applied to the tube. He designed an even better vacuum than Crookes’ and Heinrich Geissler’s vacuum tubes. He observed that the rays bounced towards the positive plate. Particles are negatively charged. He hypothesised that these particles are part of the atom. â€Å"†¦ the atoms of the elements consist of a number of negatively electrified corpuscles enclosed in a sphere of uniform positive electrification, †¦Ã¢â‚¬  1^ and 1* [Thomson, 1904] This was compared to a British dessert at the time so it became known as the plum pudding model. Ernest Rutherford was around from 1871-1937, was accountable for discoveries in radioactivity and nuclear physics. He was a student of J.J. Thomson and wanted to determine the size of the atom. He fired positively charged particle at a thin gold foil. He anticipated positively charged particles would not deviate as they passed through the positive sphere. Rutherford actually observed that about 2 in every 7 positive particles deflected back. â€Å"It was quite the most incredible event that has ever happened to me in my life. It was almost as incredible as if you fired a 15-inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it came back and hit you.† Ernest Rutherford. 2^ and 2* [Rutherford, 1964] He discovered alpha and beta rays that pioneered the laws of radioactive decay, and acknowledged alpha particles as helium nuclei. This showed that there is something in the centre of the atom and it contains most of the atomic mass. Rutherford clarified his results by saying that atoms is ma de up of mainly empty space, they are small, dense and that there is a positive sphere at the centre known as the nucleus. The positively charged particles are redirected if they are close enough to the nucleus and also that electrons orbit the nucleus. There is a theory known as the electromagnetic theory which states that any charged particle in a circular orbit radiates electromagnetic energy. The electron loses energy as it orbits the nucleus. The radius of its orbit decreases as the energy decreases. The electron should spiral towards the nucleus. The electron should emit electromagnetic waves as it loses energy at a mixture of frequencies over a certain range. The radiation spectra were not continuous. The emission spectra couldn’t be resolved with the Rutherford model, no one really understood why the formula worked. Although a scientist named J.J. Balmer has studied the emission spectrum for several elements. Spectra for other elements could be predicted using the formula. A mathematical model could be made on observations from hydrogen. Neils Bohr who was around at the time of 1885 – 1962 came with a revolutionary proposal which states energy of an orbiting atom is quantized i.e. only particular types of energies are allowed. Energies must be multiple of a base unit, he also proposed that the electrons could jump between orbits. He was the one that pioneered the quantum theory. The Bohr model shows that electrons orbit in shells of definite energy. If an electron changes from a higher to a lower energy state, the change in energy is proportional to the frequency f of the emitted photon. The energy is given off as a photon of definite energy. This relates line spectra to atomic model. Energy is only released when electrons moves to a lower energy state. Photon represents the â€Å"spare energy†. Planck proposed light travels in discrete packets of energy which is quanta. Quanta is photons. Photons move at the speed of light and they have an associated frequency. For the electron to emit light, minimum energy is required. Quantum theory explains the photoelectric effect. Einstein’s equation E = mc2 relates matter and energy. In conclusion the atomic structure and the atom itself is so interesting to learn about and you could spend millenniums studying about it. It built the way to radioactivity, x ray treatment, matter and anti-matter particles even dark matter just with atoms. This pioneered nanotechnology and most of the stuff we see today. The theory of relativity could be related to this in a way because atoms were the cause of all these theories we see today. Richard Feynman who became one of the best-known scientists in the world remarks about the atom in this statement â€Å"If all of scientific knowledge were to be destroyed, and only one sentence passed on to the next generations of creatures, what statement would contain the most information in the fewest words? I believe it is the atomic hypothesis that all things are made of atoms – little particles that move around in perpetual motion, attracting each other when they are a little distance apart, but repelling upon being squeezed into one another. In that one sentence, you will see, there is an enormous amount of information about the world, if just a little imagination and thinking are applied†¦Ã¢â‚¬  3* and 3^ [Feynman, 1998] this quote demonstrates that how atoms are so interesting and so interesting that even in millennia people will be studying it. Bibliography 1* Thomson, J.J. (1904). On the Structure of the Atom: an Investigation of the Stability and Periods of Oscillation of a number of Corpuscles arranged at equal intervals around the Circumference of a Circle; with Application of the Results to the Theory of Atomic Structure (extract of paper). Philosophical Magazine, p.237 (British science journal) 2* Rutherford, E. (1964). Rutherford and the Nature of the Atom by E. N. da C. Andrade, p.111, and quoted in Nobel Laureates in chemistry (1901-1992) by Laylin K. James, p.57. 3* Feynman, R. (1998). Six Easy Pieces: Fundamentals of Physics Explained (Penguin Press Science, Paperback), p.4 References 1^ Plum Pudding Model. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved 12th February 2015, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plum_pudding_model 2^ Ernest Rutherford. (n.d.). In Wikiquote. Retrieved 12th February 2015, from http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford 3^ Richard Feynman. (n.d.). In The Information Philosopher. Retrieved 12th February 2015, from http://www.informationphilosopher.com/solutions/scientists/feynman/ Word Count 1811

Eighteenth Century Women Playwrights Essay examples -- European Europe

The following essay gives a short biography of eight of the most well known women playwrights of the eighteenth century. The essay runs in chronological order by each playwright’s birth date and describes the better known accomplishments of each playwright. The playwrights that I have included in this essay are: Mary Delariviere Manley, Mary Griffith Pix, Susanna Carroll Centlivre, Catherine Trotter Cockburn, Eliza Fowler Haywood, Elizabeth Griffith, Hannah Parkhouse Cowley, and Elizabeth Simpson Inchbald (Benedict 2003). Mary Delariviere Manley has a strange early history. It is unknown whether or not her first name really was Mary. It is unknown exactly when and exactly where she was born. The name of her mother is unknown. The resting place of her father is unknown. Mary Manley was born either on April 6 or 7, 1663, or in any year between 1667 and 1672. Her father, Lieutenant-Governor of the English island of Jersey, abandoned her around 1688. She lived with her cousin, John Manley, who married her, although he was already married. Later, John Manley abandoned her and their son (Schlueter and Schlueter 1988). Mary Manley’s first two plays, The Lost Lover and The Royal Mischief, were written in 1696 while she lived in Exeter. Both plays were performed in London: The Lost Lover at Drury Lane and The Royal Mischief at Lincoln’s Inn Fields. Although The Lost Lover was not successful, The Royal Mischief brought her wealth and recognition. Mary believed that the plays were not as successful as they could have been because they were written by a woman. From this time on Mary was what we today call a women’s rights activist (Rozny 2001). Mary began to write political satires for wh... ... Vows. Oxford: Woodstock Books, 1990. Ingrassia, Catherine. â€Å"Eliza Haywood.† http://www.people.vcu.edu/~cingrass/chronology.htm (13 November 2003). Ricciardi, Cynthia B. â€Å"Welcome to the Elizabeth Griffith Homepage.† 10 June 2000. http://webhost.bridgew.edu/cricciardi/griffith.htm> (11 November 2003). Rozny, Noel and Margaret Vincent. â€Å"The Official Website of the Secret Society of British Gentlewomen.† 19 April 2001. (11 November 2003). Schlueter, Paul, and June Schlueter, ed. An Encyclopedia of British Women Writers. NY: Garland, 1988. Todd, Janet, ed. A Dictionary of British and American Women Writers 1660-1800. NJ: Rowman and Allanheld, 1985. Warren, Kate M. â€Å"New Advent.† 15 September 2003. (14 November 2003).

Investigation of Scriptural References Essay -- Religion Bible

Investigation of Scriptural References We find one hundred and ninety times the Hebrew verb rà »m, â€Å"to be high, or to be exalted† in the Old Testament. Basically rà »m represents either the â€Å"state of being on a higher plane,† or the â€Å"movement in an upward direction.† The second emphasis represents what is done to the subject or what it does to itself. Like the stormy wind that lifts up the waves of the sea (Ps. 27:5). God is the Most High, the great king over all the earth and exalted far above all gods (Pss. 47:2; 83:18); 97:9). He alone rules over mankind and grants dominion to whomever he wishes (Dan. 4:17, 25, 32; 5:21). Therefore Israel in response must exalt him above all others as they are his people. It must result that all nations and all creation are called to praise God and exalt him (Ps.148:13). Fanning concludes that all of life is put in its proper perspective only when God is exalted in this way. In the Old Testament â€Å"exaltation† is related to the Kingdo m of God, reflected by God’s chosen people, Israel. We will see later in this point that these reflections have priestly, prophetically and royal tendencies. In the New Testament various Greek verbs are used to express â€Å"exalt†: hupsoÃ…  â€Å"to lift up† for the exaltation of Christ by God the Father (Acts 2:33); huperupsoÃ…  â€Å"to exalt highly† with reference to Christ (Phil. 2:9); epairÃ…  â€Å"to exalt oneself† for being lifted up with pride (2 Cor. 10:5); and huperairÃ…  â€Å"to exalt oneself exceedingly† for the exceeding self-exaltation (2 Cor. 12:7). In this regard we note that exaltation is an act of God alone (Luke 1:52). The exaltation causes also a social effect (2 Cor. 11:7) and contains an eschatological element (1 Pet.5:6 and explicit Phil. 2:5). In the New Testament foll... ...0. Matt. 1:20-23. Jacob van Bruggen, Commentaries New Testament Matthew (Kampen: Kok, 2004), 33. Mark 1:14-15. Jacob van Bruggen, Commentaries New Testament Mark (Kampen: Kok, 1998), 50. Matt. 9:27-29. Donald A. Hagner, WBC Matthew1-13, vol 33a (Colombia: Thomas Nelson, 1993), 254. G. Van den Brink, Centre for Biblical Research, Matthew (Utrecht: Van Wijk, 2003), 539. Mark 1:11. Jacob van Bruggen, Commentaries New Testament Mark (Kampen: Kok, 1988), 45. Matt. 4:3. Donald A. Hagner, WBC Matthew1-13, vol 33a (Colombia: Thomas Nelson, 1993), 69. Matt. 14:33 Matt. 11:27. Donald A. Hagner, WBC Matthew1-13, vol 33a (Colombia: Thomas Nelson, 1993), 69. Stephen R. Holmes, God of Grace and God of Glory (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001), 142. Holmes, God of Grace and God of Glory, 149. Holmes, God of Grace and God of Glory, 252.

Graduation Speech: We Can Be Heroes -- Graduation Speech, Commencemen

Class of 2012, as we sit here this evening, I would like you to take a look at the classmates sitting around you. Many students have given countless hours of time, energy, and passion to worthy cuases that they have been a part of throughout high school. However, those aren't the only students deserving of recognition this evening. We have students here tonight, who have taken a stand for what they believe in, not even hesitating to compromise their reputations. I believe there are many ordinary heroes wearing caps and gowns tonight. Many of you are heroes because you challenge yourselves to be more accepting of those around you. Some of you heroes woke up every day and came to school with the desire to reach out to those hurting and in need of a friend. Other heroes went the extra mile to make someone feel important, encouraging them and offering hope they may not otherwise have experienced. One of our deepest needs as humans is to be valued. The need to be needed is often more powerful than the need to survive. Every one of us has a deep longing to write our signature on the world. As individuals, we are each equipped with unique gifts and talents to share with our family, our community, and our world. Nelson Mandela once said, "As we let our own light shine, we unconsciously give other people permission to do the same. As we are liberated from our own fear, our presence automatically liberates others." When we open ourselves to become all that we were created to be, we allow those around us to be themselves, empowering them to be a unique individual and to use the talents they possess. It doesn't matter if we are brilliant, beautiful, or incredibly charismatic. We can make a difference by just being who we are. We simpl... ...ctivities, while encouraging us to be our best. These acts of love and many more are what make you our heroes. Class of 2012, I challenge you to recognize the heroes in your life, and continue to be heroes yourselves. Author Charles Swindoll said, "We need heroes. I mean genuine heroes, authentic men and women who are admired for their achievements, noble qualities, and courage. Such people aren't afraid to be different. They risk. They stand a cut above." Swindoll's message speaks so highly of those who are heroes and those who have the potential to be heroes. So, here is my challenge to you. Rise above your fears, take risks, and don't let your abilities collect dust. Instead, live life passionately, dream big, and seek every day in ways small and large to write your signature on the planet. But be careful ... you may just empower someone else to do the same.

Appendix a – Meditation Worksheet

Appendix A – Meditation Worksheet Veronica P. Sally-Garner PSY/211 ESSENTIALS OF PSYCHOLOGY Thursday, October 20, 2011 Instructor: Terry Browning Appendix A Meditation Worksheet Directions: Locate two resources on the Internet that explain meditation techniques. Copy and paste the web address into the top of the matrix. After reviewing the website, provide a brief summary for each source. Below your summary, list two interesting facts you learned from each site. Try the techniques you located in your Internet search. Provide a brief description of what happened in your experience. Be sure to answer the two questions below the matrix also. Web Address (URL):| http://bestmeditationtechniques. org/the-basics-of-meditation| http://www. mum. edu/meditation. html? gclid=CKOsutyS-KsCFQ1U7Aod9HlUKw| Summary of resource:| Things happen so quickly in this fast-paced world. Decisions are made without thought. This could cause stress to build and affect the way people deal with life. Everyone needs to stop and take a few minutes to calm down. So if life is stressing you out, it’s time to slow down. Meditation can help relieve stress and worries. The practice of meditation is a way to be still for a while and let our minds become focused until we become calm enough to deal with the daily pressures of life. | Mediation can mean different things to different people. Mediation can be defined in three main types: focused attention- concentration, open monitoring-contemplation, and automatic self-transcending – the Transcendental Mediation Program. Transcendental Meditation also known as TM. TM is the most widely practiced, most researched, and most effective method of self-development mediation technique. Two interestingFacts: | 1. Meditation can improve Concentration. Two commonly used exercises are: Mantra – a phrase or a sound that is recited repeatedlyBreathing – achieved by inhaling through the nose, letting the diaphragm (not the chest) expand and exhaling through the mouth 2. Breathing is an integral part of meditation. Proper breathing is required in many practices of meditation and is therefore an im portant tool to be possessed by people who wish to mediate. The practice of proper breathing while meditating slows down a person’s heart rate which leads to a relaxed mood. While this may sound easy, it can be quite challenging when done for the first time. | 1. Transcendental Meditation is the most popular technique. It is practiced by people of all ages, cultures, and religions. More than five million people worldwide practice this simple, natural technique. 2. People who practice Transcendental Meditation find themselves more alert, calmer, more energetic, dynamic, yet somehow wiser, as if you have a broader perspective on their daily activities and experiences. | What happened after you tried each technique? | After trying each technique one should feel relaxed and a sense of heighten awareness. Meditation helps the mind become less distracted. | After trying Transcendental Meditation one should have more confidence and higher self esteem. | 1. Do you think meditation leads to heightened sensation and perception? Explain why or why not. ————————————————- Mediation can lead to heightened sensation and perception. Each is different but ————————————————- complements each other. Sensation is the process by which we sense through touch, smell, ————————————————- sight, taste and smell. Perception is our way of interpreting what these sensations mean and ————————————————- how to make sense of it. 2. Have you considered integrating meditation into your own lifestyle? If so, list one strategy for fitting meditation into your schedule. If not, explain why. ————————————————- I have integrated meditation into my personal lifestyle with physical exercise. Physical ————————————————- exercise promotes overall fitness, helps manage emotional stress and relieves tension.

Chinatown

What is the central theme of Chinatown and what key symbols and motifs are used to develop this theme? Fashioned as a great film nior the 1974 classic; Chinatown is a crime drama in which central themes coincide with the idea that the world is an inherently corrupt place where men of vice conquer over the helplessness of the innocent and ignorant. Plot, characters, and setting mark this piece as a neo film nior. However it is the use of pessimistic tone, also found common in many film niors, that sets to assist develop the central themes through common motifs and symbols.The motifs within the film include the ignorance to truth, an inescapable past, and a daunting fate. We also find abstract ideas within the symbolism Chinatown itself. The term motif may be defined as recurring structures, contrast, or literary devices that can help to develop and inform the major themes. With in Chinatown we find that the characters are ignorant to the point in which they are unable to see the truth . Each character is surrounded and involved to some degree within the corruption that leads to there down fall.The protagonist of the film J. J. Gttes ( Jack Nicklson), a former police officer of chinatown turned private investigator in a neighboring town, spends the majority of the film investigating a murder only to find that once he has discovered the murderer that the police are corrupt as they turn a blind eye. Gittes is ignorant to the fact that not only in Chinatown money is power and those with in power stand above the law. The intertwining of the past and fate that parallel corruption also are used as a motif.The past haunts just about every character to the point that they are unable to overcome the adversity of the corruption of the world. It is the past and secrecy of the past the past that becomes the undoing of Evelyn Mulwray (Faye Dunaway), which in turn once again lets the corruption of her father prevail. Symbols within the film include Chinatown. Chinatown is not o nly the place from Gittes past that haunts him but is also the symbol for corruption in a ity. As lawlessness runs rampant and justice is silenced by those in power. The only scene to take place in Chinatown is the final scene in which the story unravels to show the corrupt Noah Cross (John Huston) triumphant as he gets away with fraud, incest, and murder. Filmed during a time of political unrest director Polanski film Chinatown may be used as a commentary on the corruption in the institutions that are suppose to provide for the well being of all.

Liberal Theory Essay

This memo outlines the liberal approach to theorizing international relations. Like realism, institutionalism, or non-rational approaches, it is a name given to a family of related theories of international relations. Here it will not be used, as many use it in international relations, to designate theories that stress the importance of international institutions. Nor to designate theories that stress the importance of universal, altruistic or utopian values of a liberal sort, such as human rights or democracy. Nor to designate theories favored by left-wing (â€Å"liberal†) political parties or policies in the US. Instead, it is a theory that stresses the role of the varied social interests and values of states, and their relevance for world politics. Liberals argue that the universal condition of world politics is globalization. States are, and always have been, embedded in a domestic and transnational society, which creates incentives for economic, social and cultural interaction across borders. State policy may facilitate or block such interactions. Some domestic groups may benefit from or be harmed by such policies, and they pressure government accordingly for policies that facilitate realization of their goals. These social pressures, transmitted through domestic political institutions, define â€Å"state preferences† –that is, the set of substantive social purposes that motivate foreign policy. State preferences give governments an underlying stake in the international issues they face. Since the domestic and transnational social context in which states are embedded varies greatly across space and time, so do state preferences. Without such social concerns that transcend state borders, states would have no rational incentive to engage in world politics at all, but would simply devote their resources to an autarkic and isolated existence. To motivate conflict, cooperation, or any other costly foreign policy action, states must possess sufficiently intense state preferences. The resulting globalization-induced variation in social demands, and thus state preferences, is a fundamental cause of state behavior in world politics. This is the central insight of liberal international relations theory. It can be expressed colloquially in various ways: â€Å"What matters most is what states want, not how they get it. † –or- â€Å"Ends are more important than means. † Liberal theory is distinctive in the nature of the variables it privileges. The liberal focus on variation in socially-determined state preferences distinguishes liberal theory from other theoretical traditions: realism (focusing on variation in coercive power resources), institutionalism (focusing on information), and most non-rational approaches (focusing on patterns of beliefs about appropriate means-ends relationships). In explaining patterns of war, for example, liberals do not look to inter-state imbalances of power, bargaining failure due to private information or uncertainty, or particular non-rational beliefs or propensities of individual leaders, societies, or organizations. Liberals look instead to conflicting state preferences derived from hostile nationalist or political ideologies, disputes over appropriable economic resources, or exploitation of unrepresented political constituencies. For liberals, a necessary condition for war is that social pressures lead one or more â€Å"aggressor† states to possess â€Å"revisionist† preferences so extreme or risk-acceptant that other states are unwilling to submit. Three specific variants of liberal theory are defined by particular types of preferences, their variation, and their impact on state behavior. Ideational liberal theories link state behavior to varied conceptions of desirable forms of cultural, political, socioeconomic order. Commercial liberal theories stress economic interdependence, including many variants of â€Å"endogenous policy theory. Republican liberal theories stress the role of domestic representative institutions, elites and leadership dynamics, and executive-legislative relations. Such theories were first conceived by prescient liberals such as Immanuel Kant, Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill, John Hobson, Woodrow Wilson, and John Maynard Keynes-writing well before the deep causes (independent variables) they stress (e. g. democratization, industrialization, nationalism, and welfare provision) were widespread. This essay introduces the liberal approach in three steps. It presents two distinctive assumptions underlying and distinguishing liberal theories. Then it further explicates the three variants of liberal theory that follow from these assumptions. Finally, it reviews some distinctive strengths that liberal theories tend to share vis-a-vis other types of international relations theory. Two Unique Assumptions underlying Liberal Theory What basic assumptions underlie the liberal approach? Two assumptions liberal theory make are the assumptions of anarchy and rationality. Specifically, states (or other political actors) exist in an anarchic environment and they generally act in a broadly rational way in making decisions. 2] The anarchy assumption means that political actors exist in the distinctive environment of international politics, without a world government or any other authority with a monopoly on the legitimate use of force. They must engage in self-help. The rationality assumption means that state leaders and their domestic supporters engage in foreign policy for the instrumental purpose of securing benefits provided by (or avoiding costs imposed by) actors outside of their borders, and in making such calculations, states seek to deploy the most cost-effective means to achieve whatever their ends (preferences) may be. Liberal theory shares the first (anarchy) assumption with almost all international relations theories, and it shares the second (rationality) assumption with realism and institutionalism, but not non-rationalist process theories. Liberal theories are distinguished from other rationalist theories, such as realism and institutionalism, by two unique assumptions about world politics: (1) States represent social groups, whose views constitute state preferences; and (2) Interdependence among state preferences influences state policy. Let us consider each in turn. Assumption One: States Represent Societal Preferences The first assumption shared by liberal theories is that states represent some subset of domestic society, whose views constitute state preferences. For liberals, the state is a representative institution constantly subject to capture and recapture, construction and reconstruction, by domestic social coalitions. These social coalitions define state â€Å"preferences† in world politics at any point in time: the â€Å"tastes,† â€Å"ends,† â€Å"basic interests,† or â€Å"fundamental social purposes† that underlie foreign policy. Political institutions constitute a critical â€Å"transmission belt† by which these interests of individuals and groups in civil society enter the political realm. All individuals and groups do not wield equal influence over state policy. To the contrary, their power varies widely, depending on the context. Variation in the precise nature of representative institutions and practices helps define which groups influence the â€Å"national interest. † Some states may represent, ideal-typically, the preferences of a single tyrannical individual, a Pol Pot or Josef Stalin; others afford opportunities for broad democratic participation. Most lie in between. The precise preferences of social groups, weighted by their domestic power, shape the underlying goals (â€Å"state preferences†) that states pursue in world politics. Sometimes, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and other actors may form transnational alliances to assist social forces. â€Å"State-society relations†Ã¢â‚¬â€the relationship between a state and its domestic (and transnational) society in which it is embedded—lies at the center of liberal theory. [3] Liberals believe that state preferences cannot be reduced to some simple metric or preference ordering, such as seeking â€Å"security† or â€Å"wealth†. Most modern states are not Spartan: They compromise security or sovereignty in order to achieve other ends, or, indeed, just to save money. Nor do modern states uniformly seek â€Å"wealth. † Instead they strike rather strike complex and varied trade-offs among economic, social and political goals. Nor, finally do they seek â€Å"power† in the sense of â€Å"domination†: Many countries would clearly rather spend money on â€Å"butter† rather than â€Å"guns. To see how consequential the variation in goals can be, one need look no further than the implications for international relations of Germany’s evolution from Adolf Hitler’s preference for militant nationalism, fascist rule, autarky, and ruthless exploitation of German Lebensraum under Das Dritte Reich to the social compro mise underlying the postwar Bundesrepublik Deutschland, which favored capitalist democracy, expanding German exports, and peaceful reunification. Similarly one can look at the striking change in policy between Maoist and post-Maoist China, Soviet and post-Soviet Russia, Imperial and post-Imperial Japan, and so on. Assumption Two: Interdependence among State Preferences Influences State Behavior The second core assumption shared by liberal theories is that the interdependence among of state preferences influences state behavior. Rather than treating preferences as a fixed constant, as do realists or institutionalists, liberals seek to explain variation in preferences and its significance for world politics. The precise distribution and nature of the â€Å"stakes† explains differences in state policy and behavior. States, liberals argue, orient their behavior to the precise nature of these underlying preferences: compatible or conflictual, intense or weak, and their precise scope. States require a â€Å"social purpose† — a perceived underlying stake in the matter at hand — in order to pay any attention to international affairs, let alone to provoke conflict, inaugurate cooperation, or take any other significant foreign policy action. If there is no such interdependence among state objectives, a rational state will conduct no international relations, satisfying itself with an isolated and autarkic existence. Conflictual goals increase the incentive for of political disputes. Convergence of underlying preferences creates the preconditions for peaceful coexistence or cooperation. The critical theoretical link between state preferences, on the one hand, and state behavior, on the other, is the concept of policy interdependence. Policy interdependence refers to the distribution and interaction of preferences—that is, the extent to which the pursuit of state preferences necessarily imposes costs and benefits (known as policy externalities) upon other states, independent of the â€Å"transaction costs† imposed by the specific strategic means chosen to obtain them. Depending on the underlying pattern of interdependence, each of the qualitative categories above, the form, substance, and depth of conflict and cooperation vary according to the precise nature and intensity of preferences. The existence of some measure of divergent fundamental beliefs, scarcity of material goods, and inequalities in domestic political power among states and social actors renders inevitable some measure of pluralism and competition among and within states. Unlike realists such as Waltz and Morgenthau, liberals do not assume these divergent interests are uniformly zero-sum. At the same time, liberals reject the utopian notion (often attributed to them by realists) of an automatic harmony of interest among individuals and groups in international society. Nor do liberals argue, as realists like Morgenthau charge, believe that each state pursues an ideal goal, oblivious of what other states do. Liberals argue instead that each state seeks to realize distinct preferences or interests under constraints imposed by the different interests of other states. [4] This distribution of preferences varies considerably. For liberals, this variation—not realism’s distribution of capabilities or institutionalism’s distribution of information—is of decisive causal importance in explaining state behavior. A few examples illustrate how liberal theories differ from realist, institutionalist or non-rational ones. We have already encountered the example of war in the introduction, in which liberals stress states with aggressive preferences, rather than imbalances of power, incomplete information, or non-rational beliefs and processes. Another illustration is trade policy. Economists widely agree that free trade is superior welfare-improving policy choice for states, yet trade protection is often practiced. To explain protectionism, liberals look to domestic social preferences. An important factor in almost all countries is the competitive position of affected economic sectors in global markets, which generates domestic and transnational distributional effects: Protectionism is generally backed by producers who are globally uncompetitive; free trade by producers who are globally competitive. Moreover, even if the state is a net beneficiary from free trade, domestic adjustment costs may be too high to tolerate politically, or may endanger other countervailing domestic social objectives, such as domestic social equality or environmental quality. Certain domestic political institutions, such as non-parliamentary legislative systems, which governed US trade policy before 1934, grant disproportionate power to protectionist interests. This differs from realist explanations of trade protectionism, which tend to stress the role of â€Å"hegemonic power† in structuring trade liberalization, or the need to defend self-sufficient national security within the prevailing zero-sum geopolitical competition, perhaps by maintaining self-sufficiency or by aiding allies at the expense of purely economic objectives. Institutionalists might cite the absence of appropriate international institutions, or other means to manage the complex informational tasks and collective action problems—negotiation, dispute resolution, enforcement—required to manage free trade. Those who focus on non-rational theories (psychological, cultural, organizational, epistemic, perceptual or bureaucratic) might stress an ideological disposition to accept â€Å"mercantilist† theory, shared historical analogies, and the psychological predisposition to avoid losses. To further illustrate the importance of patterns of policy interdependence, consider the following three circumstances: zero-sum, harmonious and mixed preferences. In the case of zero-sum preferences, attempts by dominant social groups in one state to realize their preferences through international action may necessarily impose costs on dominant social groups in other countries. This is a case of â€Å"zero-sum† preferences, similar to the â€Å"realist† world. Governments face a bargaining game with few mutual gains and a high potential for interstate tension and conflict. Many ancient cities and states, including those of Ancient Athens, often imposed imperial tribute on defeated neighbors or, in extremis, killed the male population, cast women and children into slavery, and repopulated the town with their own citizens—a situation approximating zero-sum conflict. Today, it might still be argued that there are certain cases—trade in agricultural goods by industrial democracies, for example—where entrenched national interests are so strong that no government seriously considers embracing free trade. In the case of harmonious preferences, where the externalities of unilateral olicies are optimal (or insignificant) for others, there are strong incentives for quiet coexistence with low conflict and (at most) simple forms of interstate coordination. For example, advanced industrial democracies today no longer contemplate waging war on one another, and in some areas governments have agreed to mutual recognition of certain legal standards without controversy. One case of mixed preferences is bargaining, where states can achieve common gains (or avoid common losses, as with a war) if they agree to coordinate their behavior, but may disagree strongly on the distribution of benefits or adjustment costs. Under such circumstances, one of the most important determinants of bargaining power is the intensity of the preferences of each party; the more intense their preference for a beneficial settlement, the more likely they are to make concessions (or employ coercive means) in order to achieve it. Another situation of mixed motives is a situation where interstate coordination can avoid significant risks and costs, as in agreement to avoid naval incidents at sea, or to share information on infectious diseases. In such situations, institutional pre-commitments and the provision of greater information can often improve the welfare of all parties. Liberals derive several distinctive conceptions of power, very different from that of realism. One form of international influence, for liberals, stems from the interdependence among preferences that Keohane and Nye (Power and Interdependence) call â€Å"asymmetrical interdependence. † All other things equal, the more interdependent a state is, the more intense its preference for a given outcome, the more power others potentially have over it; while the less a state wants something, the less a state cares about outcomes, the less intense its preferences, the less power others have over it. Situations of asymmetrical interdependence, where one state has more intense preference for an agreement than another, create bargaining power. In trade negotiations, for example, smaller and poorer countries are often more dependent on trade and thus benefit more from free trade, and thus tend to have a weaker position and make more concessions in the course of negotiations. Enlargement of the European Union is a recent instance. Relative preference intensity can also influence the outcome of war, but in a different way. Nations are in fact rarely prepared to mortgage their entire economy or military in conflict, so their power depends not on their coercive power resources, but on their resolve or will. This is why smaller states often prevail over larger ones. Vietnam, for example, did not prevail over the US in the Vietnam War because it possessed more coercive power resources, but because it had a more intense preference at stake. From Assumptions to Theories Taken by themselves, these liberal assumptions—the international system is anarchic, states are rational, social pressures define state preferences, interdependence among preferences dictates state behavior—are thin. They exclude most existing realist, institutionalist, and non-rational theories, but they do not, taken by themselves, define very precisely the positive content of liberal theory. Some might rightly complain that simply pointing to state preferences opens up an unmanageably wide range of hypothetical social influences on policy. Yet, in practice, research has shown that, in practice, the range of viable liberal theories that test out empirically are relatively few, focused, and powerful. Three broad variants or categories of liberal theory exist: ideational, commercial, and republican liberalism. At the core of each lies a distinct conception of the social pressures and representative institutions that define state preferences, and the consequences for state behavior. Some of these have proven, empirically, to be among the most powerful theories in international relations. Let us consider each in turn.